This book is the first systematic treatise of available data and view-points obtained from geological and geochemical studies of the Mo deposits in Qinling Orogen, China. Qinling Orogen has a minimum reserve of 8.7 Mt Mo, ranking the largest molybdenum province both in China and the world. Incorporating all known Mo deposit types in the world, it presents extensive studies of Mo deposits of world-class and unusual types within tectonic settings. The Qinling Orogen was finally formed during continental collision between Yangtze and North China cratons, following the Triassic closure of the northernmost paleo-Tethys. It hosts 49 Mo deposits formed in seven mineralization events since 1850 Ma, with all the world-class deposits being formed during 160-105 Ma, coeval with collisional orogeny. These deposits are assigned to magmatic and metamorphic hydrothermal classes. The magmatic hydrothermal class includes porphyries, skarns, and intrusion-related veins (carbonatite, fluorite and quartz). The porphyry Mo systems in Qinling Orogen are predominated by Dabie-type formed in continental collision setting, followed by Endako- and Climax-types formed in continental arcs and rifts, respectively. The metamorphic hydrothermal Mo deposits are only reported in Qinling Orogen, and thus a new crustal continuum model for the orogenic class mineral systems is proposed. A scientific linkage between ore geology and fluid inclusions is introduced and verified both by theory and case studies. This is the first research book comprehensively displaying continental collision metallogeny. This literature will benefit both Western and Chinese mineral explorers and miners, as well as research scientists and students.
Chapter 1 Geological background
Abstract
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Tectonic location and framework
1.1.2 Inventory of main ore types and commodities
1.2 Formation and geology of Qinling Orogen
1.2.1 Outline
1.2.2 Formation and geotectonic evolution of the Qinling Orogen
1.2.3 Major geologic events in the Qinling Orogen
1.3 Basement formation in southern North China Craton
1.3.1 Multi-terrane structure of SNCC
1.3.2 Qingyanggou-type greenstone belt and the primitive crust
1.3.3 Beizi-type greenstone belt and Shipaihe Complex: continental nuclei
1.3.4 The Junzhao and Dangzehe greenstone belts
1.3.5 Rhyacian stratigraphic unit and the divergence of Xiaoshan Terrane
1.3.6 Orosirian stratigraphic unit and cratonization
1.4 Tectonic setting of Xiong'er and Xiyanghe groups: application of differentiation index
1.4.1 Preamble
1.4.2 Tectonic models of the Xiong'er and Xiyanghe groups
1.4.3 Linking igneous DI population with tectonic settings
1.4.4 Concluding remarks
1.5 Triassic tectonic setting and Indosinian Orogeny
1.5.1 Sedimentation
1.5.2 Magmatism
1.5.3 Metallogenesis
1.5.4 Concluding remarks
1.6 Yanshanian tectonism and magmatism
1.6.1 Geology and geochemistry of the Yanshanian granitoids
1.6.2 Differences between the mid- and late Yanshanian granitoids
1.6.3 Tectonic implications
1.6.4 Concluding remarks
References
Chapter 2 Mo mineralization types, in space and time
Abstract
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Trichotomy of endogenic processes
2.2.1 Epizonogenism and trichotomy of endogenic processes
2.2.2 Comparison of epizonogenism with other related terms
2.3 Three classes of hydrothermal mineral systems
2.3.1 Trichotomy of hydrothermal mineral systems
2.3.2 Epizonogenic hydrothermal mineral system
2.3.3 Metamorphic-hydrothermal mineral system
2.3.4 Magmatic hydrothermal mineral systems
2.4 Genetic types of Mo deposits in Qinling Orogen
2.5 Mineralization in space and time
2.5.1 Mineralization: spatial relationships
2.5.2 Mineralization: temporal relationships
References
Chapter 3 Porphyry Mo deposits
Abstract
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Classification of porphyry Mo deposits
3.1.2 Outline of porphyry Mo deposits in Qinling Orogen
3.2 The Jinduicheng Mo deposit
3.2.1 Introduction
3.2.2 Regional geology
3.2.3 Ore-causative porphyry
3.2.4 Ore geology
3.2.5 Fluid inclusions
3.2.6 Ore deposit geochemistry
3.2.7 Timing of mineralization
3.2.8 Concluding remarks
3.3 The Donggou Mo deposit
3.3.1 Introduction
3.3.2 Local geology
3.3.3 Donggou granite porphyry
3.3.4 Ore geology
3.3.5 Fluid inclusions
3.3.6 Isotope geochemistry
3.3.7 Timing of mineralization
3.3.8 Concluding remarks
3.4 The Yuchiling Mo deposit
3.4.1 Introduction
3.4.2 Regional and deposit geology
3.4.3 Host and ore-causative granitic intrusions
3.4.4 Alteration and mineralization
3.4.5 Fluid inclusion geochemistry
3.4.6 Isotopic geochemistry
3.4.7 Geochronology
3.4.8 Discussion
3.5 The Leimengou Mo deposit
3.5.1 Introduction
3.5.2 Regional and deposit geology
3.5.3 The ore-causative porphyry
3.5.4 Ore Geology
3.5.5 Fluid inclusion studies
3.5.6 Isotope studies
3.5.7 Geochronology
3.5.8 Summary and concluding remarks
3.6 The Wenquan Mo deposit
3.6.1 Introduction
3.6.2 Regional and deposit geology
3.6.3 The ore-causative granite
3.6.4 Alteration and mineralization
3.6.5 Fluid inclusions studies
3.6.6 Isotope geochemistry
3.6.7 Timing of mineralization
3.6.8. Concluding remarks
References
Chapter 4 Porphyry-skarn Mo ore systems
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Nannihu-Sandaozhuang Mo-W deposit
4.2.1 Introduction
4.2.2 Local Geology
4.2.3 The ore-causative porphyry
4.2.4 Ore geology
4.2.5 Fluid inclusions
4.2.6 Ore geochemistry
4.2.7 Timing of the mineralization
4.2.8 Concluding remarks
4.3 The Shangfanggou Mo-Fe deposit
4.3.1 Introduction
4.3.2 Regional and local geology
4.3.3 The ore-causative granite porphyry
4.3.4 Ore geology
4.3.5 Fluid inclusions
4.3.6 Ore geochemistry
4.3.7 Molybdenite Re-Os chronology
4.3.8 Concluding remarks
4.4 Qiushuwan Cu-Mo deposit
4.4.1 Introduction
4.4.2 Regional and local geology
4.4.3 Ore-causative porphyry
4.4.5 Fluid inclusions
4.4.6 Isotope geochemistry
4.4.7 Timing of mineralization
4.4.8 Discussion
4.4.9 Concluding remarks
4.5 The Yinjiagou Mo-polymetal deposit
4.5.1 Introduction
4.5.2 Regional and local geology
4.5.3 Ore-causative porphyry
4.5.4 Ore geology
4.5.5 Fluid inclusions
4.5.6 Ore geochemistry
4.5.7 Geochronology
4.5.8 Concluding remarks
Reference
Chapter 5 Magmatic hydrothermal vein systems
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Zhaiwa quartz vein Mo-Cu deposit
5.2.1 Introduction
5.2.2 Regional geology
5.2.3 Ore geology
5.2.4 Fluid inclusions
5.2.5 Isotope geochemistry
5.2.6 Re-Os geochronology
5.2.7 Discussion
5.2.8 Concluding remarks
5.3 Tumen molybdenite-fluorite vein system
5.3.1 Introduction
5.3.2 Regional geology
5.3.3 Ore geology
5.3.4 Fluid inclusions
5.3.5 Fluorite REY geochemistry
5.3.6 Isotope geochemistry
5.3.7 Re¿Os geochronology
5.3.8 Discussion
5.3.9 Conclusions
5.4 Huanglongpu carbonatite-hosted Mo ore-field
5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 Geology of the Huanglongpu Mo ore-field
5.4.3 Carbonatite dykes
5.4.4 Ore geology
5.4.5 Mineral chemistry
5.4.6 Fluid inclusion
5.4.7 Isotope geochemistry
5.4.8 Geochronology
5.4.9 Discussion
5.4.10 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6 Metamorphic hydrothermal (orogenic-type) systems
Abstract
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Waifangshan Mo-quartz vein cluster
6.2.1 Introduction
6.2.2 Regional geology
6.2.3 Ore geology
6.2.4 Fluid inclusions
6.2.5 Isotope geochemistry
6.2.6 Geochronology
6.2.7 Discussion: ore genesis and tectonic model
6.2.8 Concluding remarks
6.3 The Dahu Au-Mo deposit
6.3.1 Introduction
6.3.2 Geological background
6.3.3 Ore geology
6.3.4 Fluid inclusions
6.3.5 Isotope geochemistry
6.3.6 Geochronology
6.3.7 Discussion
6.3.8 Concluding remarks
6.4 The Longmendian Mo deposit
6.4.1 Introduction
6.4.2 Regional geology
6.4.3 Deposit geology
6.4.4 Fluid inclusion
6.4.5 Geochronology
6.4.6. Discussion
6.4.7 Concluding remarks
References
Chapter 7 Mineralization and Its Controls
Abstract
7.1 Spatial distribution and collisional orogeny
7.1.1 Mo mineralization and crustal thickness
7.1.2 Basement control
7.1.3 Fault control
7.2 Temporal distribution and orogenic events
7.2.1 Mineralization events and orogenies
7.2.2 Timing variation in terms of space
7.2.3 Timing variation in terms of genetic type
7.3 Host rocks and their control on mineralization
7.3.1 Age of host rocks
7.3.2 Lithology of host rocks
7.3.3 Physicochemical feature of host rocks
7.3.4 Mo contents of host rocks
7.4 The ore-causative granitoids
7.4.1 Granitoids aged 198 ¿ 225 Ma
7.4.2 Granitoids aged 133 ¿ 158 Ma
7.4.3 Granitoids aged 108 ¿ 125 Ma
7.5 Hydrothermal process and mineralization
7.5.1 Metal association and zonation
7.5.2 Hydrothermal alteration and zonation
7.5.3 Four-stage hydrothermal mineralization
7.6 The ore-forming fluids
7.6.1 Nature of ore-forming fluid and its tectonic control
7.6.2 Relationship between CO2 and Mo enrichment
7.7 Re contents of molybdenite
7.8 Concluding remarks
References
This book is the first systematic treatise of available data and view-points obtained from geological and geochemical studies of the Mo deposits in Qinling Orogen, China. Qinling Orogen has a minimum reserve of 8.7 Mt Mo, ranking the largest molybdenum province both in China and the world. Incorporating all known Mo deposit types in the world, it presents extensive studies of Mo deposits of world-class and unusual types within tectonic settings. The Qinling Orogen was finally formed during continental collision between Yangtze and North China cratons, following the Triassic closure of the northernmost paleo-Tethys. It hosts 49 Mo deposits formed in seven mineralization events since 1850 Ma, with all the world-class deposits being formed during 160-105 Ma, coeval with collisional orogeny. These deposits are assigned to magmatic and metamorphic hydrothermal classes. The magmatic hydrothermal class includes porphyries, skarns, and intrusion-related veins (carbonatite, fluorite and quartz). The porphyry Mo systems in Qinling Orogen are predominated by Dabie-type formed in continental collision setting, followed by Endako- and Climax-types formed in continental arcs and rifts, respectively. The metamorphic hydrothermal Mo deposits are only reported in Qinling Orogen, and thus a new crustal continuum model for the orogenic class mineral systems is proposed. A scientific linkage between ore geology and fluid inclusions is introduced and verified both by theory and case studies. This is the first research book comprehensively displaying continental collision metallogeny. This literature will benefit both Western and Chinese mineral explorers and miners, as well as research scientists and students.
Chapter 1 Geological background
Abstract
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Tectonic location and framework
1.1.2 Inventory of main ore types and commodities
1.2 Formation and geology of Qinling Orogen
1.2.1 Outline
1.2.2 Formation and geotectonic evolution of the Qinling Orogen
1.2.3 Major geologic events in the Qinling Orogen
1.3 Basement formation in southern North China Craton
1.3.1 Multi-terrane structure of SNCC
1.3.2 Qingyanggou-type greenstone belt and the primitive crust
1.3.3 Beizi-type greenstone belt and Shipaihe Complex: continental nuclei
1.3.4 The Junzhao and Dangzehe greenstone belts
1.3.5 Rhyacian stratigraphic unit and the divergence of Xiaoshan Terrane
1.3.6 Orosirian stratigraphic unit and cratonization
1.4 Tectonic setting of Xiong'er and Xiyanghe groups: application of differentiation index
1.4.1 Preamble
1.4.2 Tectonic models of the Xiong'er and Xiyanghe groups
1.4.3 Linking igneous DI population with tectonic settings
1.4.4 Concluding remarks
1.5 Triassic tectonic setting and Indosinian Orogeny
1.5.1 Sedimentation
1.5.2 Magmatism
1.5.3 Metallogenesis
1.5.4 Concluding remarks
1.6 Yanshanian tectonism and magmatism
1.6.1 Geology and geochemistry of the Yanshanian granitoids
1.6.2 Differences between the mid- and late Yanshanian granitoids
1.6.3 Tectonic implications
1.6.4 Concluding remarks
References
Chapter 2 Mo mineralization types, in space and time
Abstract
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Trichotomy of endogenic processes
2.2.1 Epizonogenism and trichotomy of endogenic processes
2.2.2 Comparison of epizonogenism with other related terms
2.3 Three classes of hydrothermal mineral systems
2.3.1 Trichotomy of hydrothermal mineral systems
2.3.2 Epizonogenic hydrothermal mineral system
2.3.3 Metamorphic-hydrothermal mineral system
2.3.4 Magmatic hydrothermal mineral systems
2.4 Genetic types of Mo deposits in Qinling Orogen
2.5 Mineralization in space and time
2.5.1 Mineralization: spatial relationships
2.5.2 Mineralization: temporal relationships
References
Chapter 3 Porphyry Mo deposits
Abstract
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Classification of porphyry Mo deposits
3.1.2 Outline of porphyry Mo deposits in Qinling Orogen
3.2 The Jinduicheng Mo deposit
3.2.1 Introduction
3.2.2 Regional geology
3.2.3 Ore-causative porphyry
3.2.4 Ore geology
3.2.5 Fluid inclusions
3.2.6 Ore deposit geochemistry
3.2.7 Timing of mineralization
3.2.8 Concluding remarks
3.3 The Donggou Mo deposit
3.3.1 Introduction
3.3.2 Local geology
3.3.3 Donggou granite porphyry
3.3.4 Ore geology
3.3.5 Fluid inclusions
3.3.6 Isotope geochemistry
3.3.7 Timing of mineralization
3.3.8 Concluding remarks
3.4 The Yuchiling Mo deposit
3.4.1 Introduction
3.4.2 Regional and deposit geology
3.4.3 Host and ore-causative granitic intrusions
3.4.4 Alteration and mineralization
3.4.5 Fluid inclusion geochemistry
3.4.6 Isotopic geochemistry
3.4.7 Geochronology
3.4.8 Discussion
3.5 The Leimengou Mo deposit
3.5.1 Introduction
3.5.2 Regional and deposit geology
3.5.3 The ore-causative porphyry
3.5.4 Ore Geology
3.5.5 Fluid inclusion studies
3.5.6 Isotope studies
3.5.7 Geochronology
3.5.8 Summary and concluding remarks
3.6 The Wenquan Mo deposit
3.6.1 Introduction
3.6.2 Regional and deposit geology
3.6.3 The ore-causative granite
3.6.4 Alteration and mineralization
3.6.5 Fluid inclusions studies
3.6.6 Isotope geochemistry
3.6.7 Timing of mineralization
3.6.8. Concluding remarks
References
Chapter 4 Porphyry-skarn Mo ore systems
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Nannihu-Sandaozhuang Mo-W deposit
4.2.1 Introduction
4.2.2 Local Geology
4.2.3 The ore-causative porphyry
4.2.4 Ore geology
4.2.5 Fluid inclusions
4.2.6 Ore geochemistry
4.2.7 Timing of the mineralization
4.2.8 Concluding remarks
4.3 The Shangfanggou Mo-Fe deposit
4.3.1 Introduction
4.3.2 Regional and local geology
4.3.3 The ore-causative granite porphyry
4.3.4 Ore geology
4.3.5 Fluid inclusions
4.3.6 Ore geochemistry
4.3.7 Molybdenite Re-Os chronology
4.3.8 Concluding remarks
4.4 Qiushuwan Cu-Mo deposit
4.4.1 Introduction
4.4.2 Regional and local geology
4.4.3 Ore-causative porphyry
4.4.5 Fluid inclusions
4.4.6 Isotope geochemistry
4.4.7 Timing of mineralization
4.4.8 Discussion
4.4.9 Concluding remarks
4.5 The Yinjiagou Mo-polymetal deposit
4.5.1 Introduction
4.5.2 Regional and local geology
4.5.3 Ore-causative porphyry
4.5.4 Ore geology
4.5.5 Fluid inclusions
4.5.6 Ore geochemistry
4.5.7 Geochronology
4.5.8 Concluding remarks
Reference
Chapter 5 Magmatic hydrothermal vein systems
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Zhaiwa quartz vein Mo-Cu deposit
5.2.1 Introduction
5.2.2 Regional geology
5.2.3 Ore geology
5.2.4 Fluid inclusions
5.2.5 Isotope geochemistry
5.2.6 Re-Os geochronology
5.2.7 Discussion
5.2.8 Concluding remarks
5.3 Tumen molybdenite-fluorite vein system
5.3.1 Introduction
5.3.2 Regional geology
5.3.3 Ore geology
5.3.4 Fluid inclusions
5.3.5 Fluorite REY geochemistry
5.3.6 Isotope geochemistry
5.3.7 Re¿Os geochronology
5.3.8 Discussion
5.3.9 Conclusions
5.4 Huanglongpu carbonatite-hosted Mo ore-field
5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 Geology of the Huanglongpu Mo ore-field
5.4.3 Carbonatite dykes
5.4.4 Ore geology
5.4.5 Mineral chemistry
5.4.6 Fluid inclusion
5.4.7 Isotope geochemistry
5.4.8 Geochronology
5.4.9 Discussion
5.4.10 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6 Metamorphic hydrothermal (orogenic-type) systems
Abstract
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Waifangshan Mo-quartz vein cluster
6.2.1 Introduction
6.2.2 Regional geology
6.2.3 Ore geology
6.2.4 Fluid inclusions
6.2.5 Isotope geochemistry
6.2.6 Geochronology
6.2.7 Discussion: ore genesis and tectonic model
6.2.8 Concluding remarks
6.3 The Dahu Au-Mo deposit
6.3.1 Introduction
6.3.2 Geological background
6.3.3 Ore geology
6.3.4 Fluid inclusions
6.3.5 Isotope geochemistry
6.3.6 Geochronology
6.3.7 Discussion
6.3.8 Concluding remarks
6.4 The Longmendian Mo deposit
6.4.1 Introduction
6.4.2 Regional geology
6.4.3 Deposit geology
6.4.4 Fluid inclusion
6.4.5 Geochronology
6.4.6. Discussion
6.4.7 Concluding remarks
References
Chapter 7 Mineralization and Its Controls
Abstract
7.1 Spatial distribution and collisional orogeny
7.1.1 Mo mineralization and crustal thickness
7.1.2 Basement control
7.1.3 Fault control
7.2 Temporal distribution and orogenic events
7.2.1 Mineralization events and orogenies
7.2.2 Timing variation in terms of space
7.2.3 Timing variation in terms of genetic type
7.3 Host rocks and their control on mineralization
7.3.1 Age of host rocks
7.3.2 Lithology of host rocks
7.3.3 Physicochemical feature of host rocks
7.3.4 Mo contents of host rocks
7.4 The ore-causative granitoids
7.4.1 Granitoids aged 198 ¿ 225 Ma
7.4.2 Granitoids aged 133 ¿ 158 Ma
7.4.3 Granitoids aged 108 ¿ 125 Ma
7.5 Hydrothermal process and mineralization
7.5.1 Metal association and zonation
7.5.2 Hydrothermal alteration and zonation
7.5.3 Four-stage hydrothermal mineralization
7.6 The ore-forming fluids
7.6.1 Nature of ore-forming fluid and its tectonic control
7.6.2 Relationship between CO2 and Mo enrichment
7.7 Re contents of molybdenite
7.8 Concluding remarks
References
Chapter 1. Introduction.- Chapter 2. Mining and the nature of gold deposits.- Chapter 3. Data to processes, examples, and discovery.- Chapter 4. Provinciality of goldfields.- Chapter 5. Enrichment of gold above background.- Chapter 6. Segregation of gold from base metals.- Chapter 7. Timing of deposit formation.- Chapter 8. Ore fluid types as recorded in fluid inclusions.- Chapter 9. Commonality and diversity: both need explanation. Chapter 10. Magmatic processes that lead to gold-only deposits.- Chapter 11. Fluids in the earth’s crust.- Chapter 12. Alteration in gold-only deposits.- Chapter 13. Case study: the formation of a giant goldfield: Kalgoorlie, Western Australia.- Chapter 14. Hydrothermal transport of gold.- Chapter 15. Metamorphic processes leading to gold-only deposits.- Chapter 16. Modification of deposits at high temperature.- Chapter 17. Formation and modification of deposits at lower temperatures.- Chapter 18. Carlin, Witwatersrand and some other gold-only examples.- Chapter 19. Gold-plus Copper-Gold deposits.- Chapter 20. Discoveries and the role of science in the Yilgarn goldfields of Western Australia.- Chapter 21. Discovery of Fosterville Deeps, Victorian Gold Province: long term science. Chapter 22. Summary and conclusions.
Prof. YanJing Chen, has a Ph.D. in Nanjing University. He is a Professor at School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, and adjunct professor at Shandong University of Science and Technology. He is an Associate Editor of Ore Geology Reviews and Geological Reviews, and on the Editorial Board of more than ten journals such as Minerals. Research fields include economic geology, geochemistry, and geological and environmental events (GOE) and their associated mineralization. He has won the National Natural Science Award (2015) for the study of continental collision metallogeny.
Prof. Franco Pirajno, has a Doctoral degree in Geological Sciences from the Vesuvius Volcano Observatory, University Federico II. He has considerable experience in tectonics, ore deposit geology and mineral exploration in the world. He is Adjunct Professor at The University of Western Australia, Institute of Mineral Resources at CAGS, Visiting Professor at Peking University, HonoraryResearch Fellow at CECAMS Natural History Museum, London. He is the single author of 4 books. He is appointed Editor-in-Chief of Ore Geology Reviews and Series Editor of Solid Earth Sciences (Springer) in 2012.
Dr Nuo Li, got Ph.D. from Peking University, is a Professor at the Research Center for Mineral Resources, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, CAS. She has considerable experience in mineral systems of porphyry, epithermal and orogenic types, as well as the natural or synthetic fluid/melt inclusions. She has been an experienced researcher at the Institute of Mineralogy, Leibniz University Hannover, granted by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. She is a winner of Hou Defeng Award, granted by the Society of Mineralogy, Petrology and Geochemistry of China (2020).
Dr XiaoHua Deng, got Ph.D. from Peking University, is a Research Professor and Deputy Director of the Department of Exploration Targeting, Beijing Institute of Geology for Mineral Resources. He has considerable experience in ore geology and mineral exploration in China. His research interests include hydrothermal deposits of orogenic, magmatic-hydrothermal and VMS types.
Dr YongFei Yang, got Ph.D. from Peking University, is a
senior researcher at Chengdu Centre of China Geological Survey. He
has studied the porphyry/skarn Mo deposits in Qinling-Dabie
Orogenic Belt, and shifts interest to mineral deposits and Tethyan
tectonics in Southeast Asia.
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